Hermetia illucens frass production and use in plant nutrition and pest management

ABSTRACT

Apparatus and methods are provided for producing insecticidal black soldier fly (BSF;  Hermetia illucens ) frass, and using the frass for nutritional and insect pest control activity in soils and/or on foliage. The methods include processes for using BSF frass to reduce damage to crops caused by wireworms (i.e., click beetle larvae, in the Elateridae family) and/or other Coleopteran (i.e., beetle) insect pests. Also provided is an insect trap comprising BSF frass.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to apparatus and methods for culturing Dipteraninsects, particularly Hermetia illucens (commonly referred to as theblack soldier fly), so as to produce byproducts having nutritional andpest control activity in soils and/or on plant foliage. In particular,the invention includes apparatus and methods for producing black soldierfly frass having nutritional and insecticidal pest control activities.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Larvae of the black soldier fly (BSF; Hermetia illucens; as utilizedherein, BSFs means black soldier flies) are well suited to convertingorganic waste products, such as fruit and vegetable matter (includingcoffee pulp), meat and fish, bread and grains, and manures, intomarket-valuable products, such as livestock (terrestrial or aquatic)feed or feed ingredients, pet food, food stuffs for human consumption,and plant growth supplements. Advantages of BSFs include the following:(i) BSFs are indigenous to the Americas and are now found in many partsof the world; (ii) BSF larvae grow on a wide variety of organic wasteproducts; (iii) BSF larvae and prepupae are high in protein and fattyacid content and self-harvesting; (iv) BSF adults do not need food andare therefore are not known as a disease vector; (v) BSF larvaedemonstrate anti-pathogenic qualities (Erickson, et al. 2004; Liu, etal. 2008); and (vi) BSF larvae produce stable colonies because theydeter colonization from other insect species (Bradley and Sheppard,1984) and can survive in a variety of environmental conditions.

As a member of the Family Stratiomyidae, the BSF goes through fullmetamorphosis during its lifespan. This includes the egg, larval, pupaeand adult life cycle stages. Larvae will hatch from the egg stage after48-72 hours and go through five instars (larval stages) before reachingthe pupae stage. The first instar (L1) will molt into the second instar(L2) within 4-5 days and generally reach the pupae stage within afurther 12-30 days, and for example, within 12-18 days, depending ontemperature, humidity, type of feed, quantity of feed, frequency offeeding, mixture of feed ingredients, moisture of feed, starter diet,finishing diet and consistency of feed. Between the fifth instar (L5)and the pupae stage is the prepupae stage, where BSF larvae seek a drierenvironment, for example an environment that is less saturated or lessthan 100% moisture, to complete the metamorphosis stage of its lifecycle. Accordingly, prepupae will crawl away from their “juvenile”feeding grounds, i.e., the organic wastes. This dispersal behaviortranslates into a “self-harvesting” mechanism which allows for aconvenient collection of prepupae. Self-harvesting is furtherfacilitated by the fact that BSF larvae are negatively phototactic andthus light can be used to encourage migration in desired directions uponuser demand. The pupae stage generally lasts 9-20 days, and for example,7-10 days depending on factors such as, for example, movement, proximityto other moving pupae, level of light, temperature and humidity,following which the adult fly will emerge. Adult BSFs mate and gravidfemale BSFs will lay eggs (i.e., “oviposit”) for the next generation.The life span of an adult BSF is generally 6-15 days, and, for example,7-10 days, depending on humidity (e.g., 50-90%) and/or temperature(e.g., 22-35° C.) and stored energy, such as quantities and profiles ofprotein and fat. The timeline for the aforementioned life cycle isapproximate and depends on environmental conditions and food supply. Forexample, it has been reported that limited food supply can extend thelarval period to 4 months (Furman et al., 1959).

Under appropriate conditions, gravid female BSF adults will ovipositeggs approximately 24-72 hours after mating. Eggs are generallyoviposited in tight, narrow spaces, such as blocks of cardboard withflutes oriented in any direction. Females are typically attracted tooviposition sites with pungent odours, as this usually indicates apotential food source for BSF offspring, or other biochemical signalsderived from BSF eggs or gravid BSF females. BSF adults require specificenvironmental conditions to induce mating behaviors, including specificranges of light, space, temperature and humidity. BSF will survive andmate at temperatures between 22° C. and 35° C. and humidity levelsbetween 30% and 90%, and for example, BSF will survive and mate at anambient air temperature of approximately 25° C.-30° C. with a relativehumidity of approximately 60-80%. It has been reported that a BSF colonycan be maintained at 22° C. (Tomberlin and Sheppard, 2002) and that theupper limit for optimal development of the BSF is between 30-36° C.(Tomberlin et al., 2009). A study measuring BSF mating and ovipositionreported that 80% percent of egg clutches were deposited when humidityexceeded 60% (Tomberlin and Sheppard, 2002).

BSF larvae have been produced for a variety of purposes, including:treating organic liquids (US20120187041), and digesting solid organicwaste for the purpose of waste management or production of livestockfeed (U.S. Pat. No. 6,938,574, US20030233982, US20040089241,US20110296756, US20030143728, US20020177219), and therapeutics (U.S.Pat. No. 6,557,487). Similarly, fly larvae have been used in a varietyof processes involving bio-conversion of organic materials, such asprocesses described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,322,305 for making fertilizerfrom swine feces/urine using Musca domestica.

Wireworms, the larval stage of click beetles (order Coleoptera; familyElateridae) are pests of many agricultural crops, including: corn,sorghum, small grains, tobacco, sugar beets, beans, various vegetables,and potatoes. There are reportedly more than 9000 species of wirewormworldwide, and a number of these are currently recognized as seriousagricultural pests, particularly of potato plants. For exampleapproximately 30 species are recognised as pests in Canada, and aNational Wireworm Species Distribution Map has been produced byAgriculture and Agri-Food Canada, identifying the distribution of morethan 20 wireworm pest species in Canada, including: Agriotes criddlei,A. lineatus, A. mancus, A. mellillus, A. obscurus, A. sputator, Aeolusmellillus, Athous sp. C. cylindriformis, C. destructor, C. lobata, C.morula, Ctenicera sp. H. abbreviatus, H. nocturnus, Hemicrepidius sp.,L. agonus, L. califomicus, L. canus, Limonius sp. M. communis, andMelanotus sp.

SUMMARY

In various aspects, the invention provides methods for reducing orinhibiting Coleopteran insect pest damage to a crop susceptible to theColeopteran insect pest, or for repelling or inhibiting the Coleopteraninsect pest, or for increasing yield of a crop, comprising applying aneffectifve amount of black soldier fly frass to the soil or to the crop.The frass may for example be applied by being worked into the soilbefore planting the crop, may be applied to the soil at least one weekprior to planting the crop. Crops may for example include: corn,sorghum, small grain, tobacco, sugar beet, bean, vegetable, lettuce, bokchoy, or potato. The frass may for example be applied at a rate of atleast about 5 tonnes per Hectare, or 8% dry weight frass to dry weightfrass plus soil, for example at a rate that kills at least 50% of theinsect pest.

Methods of the invention may be used to treat a variety of wirewormpests, for example: Agriotes criddlei, A. lineatus, A. mancus, A.mellillus, A. obscurus, A. sputator, Aeolus mellillus, Athous sp. C.cylindriformis, C. destructor, C. lobata, C. morula, Ctenicera sp. H.abbreviatus, H. nocturnus, Hemicrepidius sp., L. agonus, L. califomicus,L. canus, Limonius sp. M. communis, or Melanotus sp.

The term “frass” is generally understood to refer to the excrement ofinsect larvae, or the refuse left behind by boring insects. In thecontext of the present invention, BSF frass connotes a mixture thatincludes excretia of BSF larvae, exuvia of larvae and other parts fromother BSF stages of development (including dead eggs, larvae, pupae oradults), indigestible material, for example fibrous or cellulose basedmaterial, other metabolic products, for example, hormones, antibioticsor enzymes, chitin, and other organisms associated with this organicmixture, such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa and yeasts. In selectedembodiments, BSF frass is the result of a process in which the majority(≧50%, up to 100%) of the dry matter of a feedstock passes through thedigestive system of the BSF larvae, to produce residue that constitutesBSF frass.

In accordance with one aspect of the invention, BSF frass has been shownto have beneficial effects on plant growth and survival. In exemplaryembodiments, BSF frass of the present invention contains macronutrients,for example characterized by having NPK at levels approximating 5-2-2.As such, BSF frass of the invention can be used as a fertilizer or soiladditive, for example at an application rate appropriate for selectedplant and soil characteristics.

In alternative aspects of the invention, BSF frass has been shown tohave properties that confer protective effects against plant pathogens.In exemplary embodiments, BSF frass of the invention may accordingly beused for reducing or inhibiting pest damage to a susceptible crop. Forexample, to reduce or inhibit damage caused by wireworms.

Various embodiments of the invention provide methods for convertingorganic material. For example, such methods may include isolating BSFeggs using apparatus adapted for that purpose, distributing the BSF eggsin an environment containing organic material, and maintaining the BSFeggs in the environment until the BSF eggs hatch to become BSF larvaecapable of converting organic material, for example converting thematerial to frass. The BSF eggs may be maintained in a vessel containingorganic waste material.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an apparatus for producing black soldierfly eggs according to a first embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2 is a perspective view of an apparatus for producing black soldierfly eggs according to a second embodiment of the invention in which theoviposition chamber is accessible from outside the apparatus using adrawer system.

FIG. 3A is a perspective view of a pupation chamber utilizing a drawersystem for use with various embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 3B is a perspective view of a pupation chamber utilizing a drawersystem for use with various embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 4A is a perspective view of a pupation chamber utilizing a blowerto blow emergent black soldier flies toward the mating chamber.

FIG. 4B is a top view of the pupation chamber illustrated in FIG. 4A.

FIG. 5 is a perspective view of a connection between a pupation chamberand a mating chamber including a funnel trap for preventing retreat ofblack soldier flies from the mating chamber.

FIG. 6 a cross-sectional view of the connection illustrated in FIG. 5.

FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a connection between a pupation chamberand a mating chamber including a tapered slot with offset end edges forpreventing retreat of black soldier flies from the mating chamber.

FIG. 8 a cross-sectional view of the connection illustrated in FIG. 7.

FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional top view of an embodiment of the inventionin which the pupation chamber is positioned within the mating chamberand comprises a drawer system by which pupae and prepupae may beintoducted to the pupation chamber from the exterior of the matingchamber.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Various embodiments of the invention provide an apparatus and methodsfor producing and isolating BSF eggs in a self-contained environment,including the inducement of mating and the convenient isolation andcollection of eggs with minimal disruption of fly behaviors. Thefollowing exemplary embodiments are provided for illustrative purposes,and are not intended to be limiting.

Referring to FIG. 1, an apparatus for producing and isolating BSF eggsaccording to a first embodiment of the invention is shown generally at90. The apparatus includes a mating chamber 100, an artificial lightsource 110, and an oviposition chamber 120 in communication with themating chamber. Optional features include a pupation chamber 130 and amort chamber 140, both of which can be placed in communication withmating chamber 100.

Mating Chamber.

Mating chamber 100 is defined by a plurality of walls, e.g. cylindricalupper wall 101 and lower conical wall 105. A person of ordinary skill inthe art will understand, however, that mating chambers according tovarious embodiments of the invention may be defined by any number ofwalls, including a single wall. Walls 101 and 105 may be constructedfrom a plastic mesh material or other appropriate material. For example,walls 101 and 105 may be constructed of Lumite (Lumite Co., Baldwin,Ga.) because it is durable, heat- and UV-resistant. Further, lightcolored materials (e.g., white or yellow) may be used as they reflectlight and may also encourage BSF mating. The mating chamber 100 may beof any reasonable size and shape, for example a square or cylinder.Preferably, the bottom of the mating chamber is conical or v-shaped. Forexample, the mating chamber 100 may be generally cylindrical with atotal volume of approximately 1.3 m³. Further, and for example, theheight of the mating chamber 100 will be limited (for example, toapproximately 3 m or less) based on light diffusion from above.Alternatively, the generally cylindrical upper wall 101 (e.g., ˜1.5 m inheight, ˜0.9 m in diameter) may be connected at the bottom to wall 105which defines a funnel-shaped mort chamber 140.

Wall 101 includes a means of accessing the chamber 100 from theexterior, e.g. zipper 102 (e.g., ˜90 cm long) located approximately 15cm from the top of the mort chamber 140. However, a variety of sealableopenings may be used. Additional access points may be provided asneeded. For example, an approximate 0.15 m opening in wall 101 mayprovide an additional access for pupation chamber 130. The top of wall101 may include a plurality of loops 103 for suspending the matingchamber 100 off the floor. Additional loops may be included on theinside of the mating chamber 100 from which plastic mesh or othersuitable material may be suspended to increase the inner surface areafor adult BSF to rest on (not shown in Figures).

The mating chamber 100 may be maintained at an air temperature ofapproximately 29° C. with a relative humidity of approximately 70%.Humidity may be maintained with, for example, a manual or automatedhumidifier; for example, a Sunbeam® humidifier may be employed. Whileadult BSF do not eat, they may be kept hydrated using a hydrationsystem. Serving as an example, an Exo Terra® Monsoon RS4000 HighPressure Rain System may be installed and programmed to spray distilledwater for approximately 12-16 seconds at 1 hour intervals.

Adult BSF may be added directly to the mating chamber 100 through anopening, e.g., through the zipper 102. Alternatively, adult BSF may beadded indirectly to the mating chamber 100 by adding pupae or prepupaeto pupation chamber 130 through the pupation chamber portal 131.Pupation chamber 130 may be in communication with mating chamber 130 bymeans of conduit 134. Accordingly, newly emergent adult BSF may migratefrom the pupation chamber 130 to tubular conduit 134, and toward matingchamber 100.

The pupation chamber 130 may be constructed from any appropriatematerial, for example plastic or metal, according to any reasonabledimensions. For example, a plastic tote of approximate dimensions2×1.5×1.5 feet may be used. The pupation chamber 130 may be kept atapproximately 60-95% humidity, for example 80-90% humidity. The pupationchamber 130 may be kept at approximately and 25° C.-35° C., for example28° C.-30° C. using a control system and probe (e.g., Zoo Med'sHydrotherm™). For example, humidity may be introduced with a foggingsystem (serving as an e.g., Zoo Med's Repti Fogger™ TerrariumHumidifier) and heat may be applied with a standard electric heatingcable or ceramic heater or any other suitable heater. Dehumidificationmay be applied with a blower system.

BSF pupae or prepupae may be introduced to the pupation chamber 130through a pupation chamber portal 131, which for example may be a PVCtubular conduit with cap located on the upper side of the pupationchamber 130. The top of the pupation chamber 130 may be covered with amesh screen 132 that tapers to a tubular conduit 134 connecting thepupation chamber 130 with the mating chamber 100 or mort chamber 140. Inthe illustrated embodiment, conduit 134 connects the pupation chamber130 with the mort chamber 140, which in turn is in communication withthe mating chamber 100. The conduit 134 may be made of mesh or any othersuitable material. A cover 133 may be placed over the mesh screen 132 tokeep humidity inside and light out. The cover 133 may be made of plasticor any other suitable material. The opening to the conduit 134 is notblocked by the cover 133 so that when adult BSF emerge from pupationthey are attracted to light shining from above through a sidewall of thetubular conduit 134, or light shining through tubular conduit 134 frommating chamber 100. Adult BSF may fly or walk through tubular conduit134. The tubular conduit 134 may be angled at approximately 0 to 45degrees relative to the base of the pupation chamber 130 to allow forlight to enter, while maintaining an angle that matches the typicalflight angle of BSF adults.

Referring to FIG. 3A, a pupation chamber according to variousembodiments of the invention is shown generally at 330. Pupation chamber330 includes a system of drawers 354 supported by a hollow frame 351.The system of drawers 354 allows for temporal (age) organization of theprepupae which enter chamber 330. The system further allows for easyremoval of empty pupation exuviae after emergence has completed, andrestocking of new prepupae. The system can provide drawer-specificcontrol of environmental conditions (e.g., temperature and humidity). Ayet further advantage of the drawer system is that it allows forexpansion through the addition of additional drawer units into thesystem. Pupation chamber 330, for example, may be provided with eight(8) drawers, however a person skilled in the art will understand thatonly a subset of the total drawers may be used at any time.

Referring still to FIG. 3A, pupation chamber 330 is connected frombehind to the mating chamber 300 by tubular conduit 334. Tubular conduit334 is made of a mesh material, however, a person skilled in the artwill understand that it could be made of other materials, such as anon-mesh tube illustrated in FIG. 3B. Prepupae are loaded into eachdrawer 354 from the front end of the pupation chamber 330. A set ofemergence holes (not shown) are positioned at the back of each drawer toprovide an exit for the newly emerged adult BSF into conduit 334.

Adult BSFs are drawn to the exit holes at the back of the drawer due toillumination of conduit 334 by ambient light shining through the mesh,or the artificial light source of the mating chamber 300. Alternatively,an artificial lighting system external to mating chamber 300 can beemployed to attract emerging adult BSFs from pupation chamber 330 intoconduit 334. For example, LED lights can be provided on the interior ofthe conduit 334 to attract emerging adult BSFs. To assist in directingthe movement of newly emerged adult BSFs, the pupation chamber 330 isenclosed within a dark fabric which only allows light to penetratethrough exit holes at the back from conduit 334. Once in conduit 334,BSFs migrate through the conduit and into mating chamber 300 throughopening 335 defined by a wall of the mating chamber.

Migration of newly emerged BSFs to the mating chamber does not have tobe an entirely passive process as described above. FIG. 4 illustrates anembodiment of the invention in which a blower is used to blow BSFs inthe conduit toward the mating chamber. In the illustrated embodiment,pupation chamber 430 is connected to mating chamber 400 by T-conduit434. In the illustrated embodiment, T-conduit 434 is horizontal suchthat the entrance to the conduit from the emergence openings(s) ofpupation chamber 430 is at the same height as mating chamber opening435. However, a person skilled in the art will understand that conduit434 need not be oriented horizontally, and that the entrance to theconduit and the maturation chamber opening 435 could be verticallyoffset from each other. Blower 460 is in communication with conduit 434,and configured to blow BSFs toward opening 435, and thus mating chamber400. Attracted by light coming from conduit 434, newly emerged BSFs exitpupation chamber 430 into the conduit and are blown toward, and perhapsinto, mating chamber 400. Blower 460 may be set on a timer toperiodically blow, so as to allow for a plurality of BSFs to accumulatein the conduit 434 before they are blown toward the mating chamber 400.A check valve may used anywhere along the path between the blower 460and the mating chamber 400 to prevent BSFs from retreating from themating chamber to the conduit 434 or pupation chamber 430. In theillustrated embodiment, check valve 462 is positioned at opening 435.Check valve 464 opens due to pressure generated when blower 460 is inoperation. Check valve 462 closes due to the decrease in pressure whenblower 460 is off, which ensures that gravid female BSFs cannot retreatfrom the mating chamber 400 to oviposit eggs in the connector 434 orpupation chamber 430. Another check valve 464 may be positioned to sealblower 460 from conduit 434 to prevent flies from settling around orgetting stuck in the blower. The conduit 434 may be shaped such that aventuri effect creates suction to aid the movement of flies from thepupation chamber 430 to the mating chamber 400. Blower 460 may also helpventilate the pupation chamber 430 and keep prepupae at the desiredhumidity and temperature. Alternatively, or in combination with blower460, an artificial lighting system external to mating chamber 400 can beemployed to attract emerging adult BSFs from pupation chamber 430 intoconduit 434. For example, LED light 470 can be provided on the interiorof the conduit 434 to attract emerging adult BSFs.

A person skilled in the art will further understand that alternativestructures can be used, both with passive systems or systems employingblowers, to prevent retreat of BSFs from the mating chamber. FIGS. 5 to8 illustrate the use of a one-way passage or duct to inhibit or preventretreat of BSFs from the mating chamber 100. One-way passages willgenerally have a wide entrance and taper towards a exit of sufficientsize and shape to permit passage of a BSF through, but sufficientlynarrow and acute as to inhibit subsequent re-entry of the BSF into theone-way conduit. In one alternative, the one-way conduit includes afunnel, which may be generally frustoconical in shape (although othershapes may be contemplated). Referring to FIGS. 5 and 6, opening 535 tothe mating chamber 700 is defined by funnel 536 which tapers toward themating chamber 500. Accordingly, BSFs are funneled into chamber 700, andcannot retreat into conduit 534.

In another alternative illustrated in FIGS. 7 and 8, the one-way passagemay be include a tapered slot comprising opposing walls 736 and 737which taper toward each other from the entrance to the exit, i.e. slit735. As seen in FIG. 8, edge portions 738 and 739 of walls 736 and 737,which define slit 735, are offset.

The illustrated one-way conduits may serve to prevent BSFs fromretreating into the conduit for several reasons. A BSF may be unable toarticulate its abdomen and thorax to an angle less than that required tomake it through the hole 535 in FIG. 6 or slit 735 in FIG. 8. BSFs maybe unable to fly directly into the hole 535 or slit 735 where the widthof the wingspan approaches or is greater than the width of the hole orslit. Where the overlapping edge portion of slit 735 extends beyond theunderlapping edge portion 738 by less than the length of a BSF, a BSFmay be unable to easily land on the underside of the overlapping edge739, and thus be discouraged from landing parallel to the slit 735.

While one-way conduits have been illustrated in association with themating chamber opening, it will be appreciated that the one-way conduitscould be positioned anywhere in the conduit between the pupation chamberand the mating chamber opening and still achieve a desired effect ofpreventing retreat of BSFs, especially gravid BSFs, toward the pupationchamber.

Furthermore, while the illustrated embodiments show the use of conduitsto connect mating chambers with external pupation chambers, a personskilled in the art will understand that it is sufficient that thepupation chamber and the mating chamber are in communication with eachother. Accordingly, in a simplified embodiment of the invention, thepupation chamber may be positioned directly within the mating chamber.BSF pupae or prepupae may be introduced to the pupation chamber outsidethe mating chamber. Once the BSF pupae or prepupae are introduced intothe pupation chamber, the pupation chamber can be placed within themating chamber. Provided that the pupation chamber remains incommunication with the mating chamber, e.g. by way of an emergencehole(s) in the walls or ceiling that define the pupation chamber, andthat light from the mating chamber can penetrate into the pupationchamber to attract newly emerged BSFs adult from the pupation chamber tothe mating chamber, a further conduit to connect the pupation chamberand mating chamber is not necessary. Nevertheless, one way passages orducts may be used in combination with emergence holes to prevent BSFadults from re-entering the pupation chamber from the mating chamber.

As a further alternative design for a pupation chamber, and referring toFIG. 9, mating chamber opening of mating chamber 900 may be designed toaccommodate drawers 954 of pupation chamber 930, such that the pupationchamber may be positioned within the mating chamber yet the contents ofthe drawers may be accessed from the exterior of the mating chamber.Such design, which may be similar to that discussed below for theoviposition chamber as illustrated in FIG. 2, facilitates theintroduction of the pupae and prepupae to the system without enteringthe mating chamber 900 or allowing adult BSF to escape. The pupationchamber 930 may be sewn into the mating chamber and supported from themating chamber frame structure or supported from above by rope, chain orrods, or other suitable means.

Referring again to FIG. 3, the capacity of prepupae for each drawer 354of the drawer system is dependent on the desired population size for themating chamber 300. A rotating pupae input system (based on thedevelopment time required for prepupae to mature into adults) can beutilized to sequence the availability of empty drawers as desired.Further, individual environmental temperature control devices may beinstalled into each drawer 354 for controlling environmental conditionstherein.

Mort Chamber.

Referring again to FIG. 1, once in the mating chamber 100, adult BSFlive approximately 7 to 10 days. On about day 2-4, females mate withmales. On about days 3-5 they lay eggs. Around day 7 to 10, BSF die andcollect in the funnel-shaped mort chamber 140 at the bottom of themating chamber 100. At the bottom of the mort chamber 140 is an opening139 (for e.g., 0.15 m in diameter) fitted with a manual or automatedvalve 141, which facilitates the daily or periodic collection ofmortalities. Alternatively, if the mort chamber is v-shaped such thatthe mortality chamber is a long trough, a trough cleaning mechanism maybe used to sweep mortalities to one end of the trough for collectionthrough a gate or valve.

Artificial Light Source. Referring still to FIG. 1, an artificial lightsource 110 is shown suspended above the mating chamber 100. There may bemore than one artificial light source. For example, the light source 110may be placed approximately 0.15 m above the top of the mating chamber100. For example, a 500 W quartz-iodine light source (Model QVF135,Philips Lighting Ltd.) is reported to provide a spectrum between350-2500 nm at 135 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ light intensity. This light reportedlyachieved 61.9% BSF mating success relative to natural sunlight underconditions of 28-30° C., 60-90% humidity, and access to drinking watervia a spray every 2-3 hours (Zhang et al., 2010). Reproducing these sameconditions in-house achieved 51% mating success (see Example 1, Table 2herein). As described below, it was discovered that the addition of ahalogen light source (e.g., a 50 W Exo Terra® Sunglo Halogen bulb or 50W Halogen Neodymium Daylight bulb), which produces low intensity UBA andUVB, visible, and infrared wavelengths to the quartz-iodine light sourceimproved mating success. The highest degree of mating success wasobserved when a 300 W quartz-iodine light was used in combination with a50 W halogen light (see: Example 1, Table 2 herein). Light fixtures wereplaced approximately 30 cm from their center points and angled towardeach other at an angle of 15 degrees such that the wavelengths from theemitted light sources overlap. In another embodiment, natural sunlightmay be used as a supplemental light source and/or a single light sourcemay be used that emits a broader range of wavelengths than thecombination described above, but is modified with filters to providesubstantially the same intensities and wavelengths as the combination ofthe quartz-iodine and halogen light sources. A light and darkness cyclemay be used to emulate day and night. Serving as a non-limiting example,the total light source (both bulbs) may be turned on for a light periodof 9 hours from 0800 h to 1700 h, and turned off for a darkness periodof 15 hours from 1701 h-0759 h.

Oviposition Chamber.

Referring still to FIG. 1, the oviposition chamber 120 may be placedinside the mating chamber 100; for example, the oviposition chamber 120may be supported by a rack (not shown in FIG. 1) affixed to the walls ofthe mating chamber 100 or it may be supported from the bottom or top ofthe mating chamber 100. Alternatively, the oviposition chamber 120 maybe separate but connected to the mating chamber 100, so long as themating chamber and oviposition chamber are in communication. FIG. 1shows an example of an oviposition chamber 120 constructed of a plasticbucket, with a lid 121. Serving as a non-limiting example, theoviposition chamber lid 121 is propped open from the lid hinge 122 witha wire stopper. This creates an entrance and exit to the ovipositionchamber 120, and also creates a dark environment which promotesovipositing by the female BSF. Egg laying materials are placed on theinner walls of the bucket. For example, the egg laying materials may beblocks of corrugated cardboard; female BSF will oviposit eggs into theopenings of individual “flutes” in the cardboard. Serving as anon-limiting example, the dimensions of flute openings may beapproximately 3 mm×3 mm. Further, and for example, cardboard blocks maybe constructed from stacks of three strips of approximately 3×10 cmcardboard held together with tape, but leaving the flute openingsuncovered. Further, egg laying material may be plastic or metal withequivalent sized holes ranging in size from 2-4 mm in diameter. Theshape of the hole openings may be circular, elliptical, half circles,square or variations thereof. An attractant is placed in the bottom ofthe bucket to draw gravid (i.e., pregnant) female BSF to the ovipositionchamber 120. An example of an attractant is a saturated 1:1 mixture ofGainesville diet (Hogsette, 1985) mixed with BSF larvae leachate and BSFcastings. Other attractants can include fermenting grain, such as cornbrewery grain, manure, decomposing food waste, BSF larvae and/or eggs.Any or all of these in various combinations will attract gravid femaleBSFs.

Referring to FIG. 2 now, an alternative design for an ovipositionchamber is shown generally at 220. As alluded to above, wall 201 ofmating chamber 200 defines an additional opening for accommodatingdrawers 222 and 224 of oviposition chamber 220, such that theoviposition chamber may be positioned within the mating chamber yet thecontents of the drawers may be accessed from the exterior of the matingchamber. This design facilitates the collection of BSF eggs withoutentering the mating chamber 200 or allowing adult BSF to escape.

The oviposition chamber 220 may be sewn into the mating chamber 200 andsupported by a cross piece (not shown in FIG. 2) from the mating chamber200 frame structure or supported from above by rope, chain or rods, orother suitable means. Serving as a non-limiting example, the ovipositionchamber 220 may be sewn into the mating chamber 200 at a height ofapproximately ⅓ of the total mating chamber 200 height from the mortchamber 240. Gravid female BSFs prefer to oviposit out of direct light;accordingly, a floating roof 221 may be used to provide shade from theartificial light source 210 and keep egg laying material dry and awayfrom the mist. The top drawer 222 may contain egg-laying materials 223consisting of, for example, vertically-oriented plastic or cardboardflutes or tubes that are open at both ends (as detailed herein). Thebottom section of the top drawer may be perforated to allow for thescent of attractant to diffuse from the bottom drawer into the topdrawer 224. A sweeper (not shown in FIG. 2) may be fixed to the frame ofthe oviposition chamber 220 to gently remove any adults that may belaying eggs or resting on the egg laying material as the drawer isopened. The bottom drawer may contain a saturated 1:1 mixture ofGainesville diet mixed with BSF larvae leachate and BSF castings, orother suitable attractants (as detailed herein), to draw gravid femaleBSFs to the egg laying materials 223 above it. A metal sheet (not shownin FIG. 2) may be used to slide between the top and bottom drawers (222and 224, respectively) to cover the bottom drawer 224, when the topdrawer 222 is removed for egg collection or when the attractant is beingreplaced to prevent undesired adults accessing and/or landing in theattractant. Alternatively, a single drawer may be used whereby thevertically oriented tubes are held above the attractant with tabs, suchthat the top of the tubes are flush, i.e. lay in substantially a commonplane, with the top of the drawer. Drawers 222 and 224 are located tightto the frame to discourage females from laying eggs in crevices and theframe is enclosed on the sides and bottom to prevent adults escapingwhen drawers are opened.

The egg laying materials 223 containing eggs may be collected withinapproximately 0-24 hours after the eggs have been laid.

In a scaled up system, a long or rectangular cage for example, up to 100feet long and less than 6 feet wide can contain open or closedcontainers (prepupae chambers) on a rail system, such that a series ofprepupae chambers enter an inlet at one end of the cage and transitionto the other end of the cage, where they exit the cage through an outletor transition to another rail system that returns them to the an outletat their origin. Each prepupae chamber will have a residency time in thecage for a period of time that allows >75% of the prepupae metamorphoseinto adult flies, for example 24 days. Prepupae chambers exiting fromthe cage arecleaned and restocked. Similarly, empty ovipositioningchambers would enter one end of the cage onto a rail system and theywould be retrievable either at the same end of the cage, or the oppositeend every day or every second day. Multiple lights would be positionedabove the cage, for example every 4 ft. The bottom ½ to ⅓ of the cage isv-shaped when viewed longitudinally, and funnels adult mortalities to atrough where they can be collected with a vacuum, flushed out with wateror dumped using a trap door.

The apparatus(es) and methods detailed herein can be used in a moreexpansive “lifecycle” of the BSF. For example, BSF eggs generated usingthe apparatus(es) and methods detailed herein can be introduced to adigester that contains organic waste materials (for example, fruits,vegetables and fish offal). The BSF life cycle can proceed with the BSFlarvae converting organic waste which is present in the digester. Thelife cycle can further proceed with BSF larvae becoming prepupae.Prepupae or larvae can be processed for further purposes (for e.g.,livestock (aquatic or terrestrial), pet feed, or even foodstuffs forhuman consumption). Further, prepupae can be introduced into aself-contained hatchery apparatus (as described herein) for generatingBSF eggs. Accordingly, it will be appreciated that a digester whichsupports organic waste materials can be used in association with theapparatus(es) and methods detailed herein.

Example 1: BSF Frass Production

In accordance with this aspect of the invention, BSF frass is producedby feeding BSF larvae at a selected density (larvae/unit volume orsurface area), quantity of feed, frequency of feeding, and duration offeeding, under selected environmental conditions, with an appropriateevaporation rate, to achieve a final dry product, for example that isless than 30% moisture. Target moisture contents of the BSF Frass canfor example be achieved during the process through active evaporation byblowing warm, dry air through or over the feeding surface, or afterharvesting through passive or active drying techniques.

In exemplary embodiments, BSF frass production can be achieved using thefollowing feeding protocol:

-   -   Larvae are fed in an environment having a temperature of 20-35°        C., such as 25-35° C. and a relative humidity of 40-80%.    -   Larvae are fed an organic feedstock, which may be in varying        stages of degradation, including, but not limited to:        pre-consumer or post-consumer food waste (e.g. expired or past        due packaged food, produce, deli waste, bakery waste), food        processing by-products (e.g. brewery grains, produce, fish        trimmings) and/or livestock manure.    -   Larvae are fed a feedstock having a selected average particle        size that larvae can consume within 24 hours, for example less        than about 1 inch in diameter, or in the alternative less than        about ½ inch in diameter. If the average particle size is too        large, larvae will only partially ingest the food, reducing the        quality of the final product. Moreover, large particles will        result in large fiborous particles, which will make the        seiving-out of larvae less effective as there will be waste        particle sizes larger than the length of a larvae.    -   Feed is applied to the surface of the larvae/frass and spread        over the the surface of the material (larvae/frass). Feed is not        mixed into the larvae/frass as this creates clumping of material        and can result in larvae mortality. The material may be        mechanically mixed or turned toward the end of the feeding        process when material is dry enough such that clumping of        material does not occur, for example, during the last ⅓ of the        feeding time for example, days 14-21 in a 21 day growth cycle,        in order to aid in the evaporation of water.    -   Larvae are produced from eggs that can be gathered from wild or        domestic populations of adult flies, for example produced using        the systems described herein. Larvae may for example be hatched        within about 20 cm, or 15 cm, or 10 cm or 5 cm above an        incubation feed, which can for example include any combination        of the previously characterized organic feedstocks. A selected        number of larvae may be fed in batches to achieve a uniform size        of larvae, for example larvae collected within a 5 day period.    -   The number of larvae in each batch may for example be determined        by: 1) dividing the total weight of eggs added to the batch by        the average egg weight or 2) within 1 week following the        incubation step, a subsample(s) of the batch is collected and        the following data determined: number of larvae in the sample,        the total weight of the subsample, and the total weight of the        batch. The number of larvae=(# larvae/weight of subsample)×total        weight of the batch.    -   Larvae may for example be fed a cumulative total of 0.1-0.3 g        dry matter per larva over the 14-28 day period. The dry matter        in the food may be determined by weighing a subsample of wet        feed and dried to a constant weight using an oven or a moisture        analyzer. Percent Dry matter of feed=(weight of dry feed/weight        of wet feed)×100.    -   Larvae may be fed daily to maximize the surface feeding area        over time and to calibrate the amount of feed depending on the        developmental stage of the larvae. If too much feed is        introduced early in the growth cycle, larvae will become trapped        and will die. For example, incubation takes approx. 8 days, in        which <5% of the total dry feed is fed to the larvae. On day 9,        the larvae are transferred to a larger container containing        17-22% of the total dry feed. Larvae are then fed the following        percentages of the total dry food on each day: 0% (Day 9), 0%        (Day10), 9% (Day11), 9% (Day12), 9% (Day13), 9% (Day14), 9%        (Day15), 9% (Day16), 9% (Day17), 9% (Day18), 5% (Day19), 5% (Day        20), 5% (Day 21).    -   Larvae may be reared over a period of 14-28 days, from egg        hatching to harvesting    -   Larvae may be maintained in relatively high densities of 10-25        larva/cm2.    -   The depth of material in each batch may be no more than that        which allows larvae to access the bottom of the container, for        example 4-6 inches. This aspect of the process may for example        be carried out so as to maximize the probability of feed going        through the digestive system of a larva at least once and to        allow for adequate aeration of feed/digestate through the        bioturbation activity of larvae.    -   Larvae may be either be allowed to crawl out of the BSF frass,        and/or separated by density and/or size, for example,        mechanically separated through sieving, screening and/or air        clarification from the BSF frass.

Fractions that arise from the separation methods of the invention mayfor example include: BSF larvae, BSF middlings, and BSF frass. BSFlarvae may include mature larvae, for example between 0.15 and 0.30grams in mass. BSF middlings may include a mixture of larvae, largeparticle size frass, and other fibre or undigestible materal. BSF frassmay include, excretia of BSF larvae, exuvia of larvae and other partsfrom other BSF stages of development (i.e. dead eggs, larvae, pupae oradults), indigestible material, for example fibrous or cellulose basedmaterial or seeds; other metabolic products, for example, hormones,antibiotics or enzymes, chitin and organisms, for example bacteria,fungi, protozoa and yeasts associated with the above.

If seeds are present in the feedstock inputs, the BSF frass may beheated so as to render such seeds non-viable (ie. unable to germinate),for example to at least 64 C for 3.5 hours. Alternatively, the frass canbe pulverized thus physically damaging the seeds. Failure to adequatelyrender seeds in the frass inviable will result in an unsalablefertilizer.

Example 2: Field Effectiveness of BSF Frass Against Wireworm

Insecticidal BSF frass was produced by feeding larvae a mixture of foodwaste composed of approximately 70% produce, 20% breads or grains, 10%fish offal. A wide range of alternative feedstocks may be used inalternative embodiments.

In various aspects, the present invention is based on the observationthat BSF frass exhibited pest control attributes, as an insecticide orinsect repellant, as evidenced by the fact that other species of insectswere not found to inhabit digestate of BSF larvae under selectedlaboratory conditions, in circumstance where other insects were providedaccess to the digestate. Field plots to demonstrate this activity wereaccordingly established at a site known to harbour Agriotes lineatuswireworms (in a geographic region known to harbour Agriotes lineatus, A.obscures and Limonius canus). Twelve plots were marked off within eachof four blocks, with each block assigned to a different crop. Fourreplicates of each of three levels of frass (0 (control), 5 and 10tonnes/Ha equivalents) were randomly assigned to plots within eachblock. Immediately after application of the frass, about the top 15 cmof soil on all plots (including the controls) were worked with a rake orpitchfork. All plots were then covered with burlap material. After twoweeks, the burlap was removed and the soil surface was again worked. Twoof the blocks were planted with starter seedlings: lettuce and bok choy.After approximately several days, the lettuce and bok choy plants on thecontrol plots (0 tonnes/Ha frass) were in severe distress, consistentwith wireworm feeding damage, while those on the frass-treated plotsremained visually healthy and vigorous. Over the course of the nextseveral days, the condition of the control plants worsened, consistentwith ongoing wireworm feeding damage, resulting in eventual mortalitygreater than 90%, whereas the frass-treated plants continued to grownormally, with low mortality. Analysis of these results and the fieldconditions indicated that the BSF frass treatment exerted a protectiveeffect against wireworm feeding damage, to which the plants wouldotherwise be susceptible.

Example 3: Insecticidal Frass Bioassays

In controlled bioassays, three species of wireworms were readily killedby the insecticidal BSF frass mixed with soil: A. lineatus, A. obscurusand L. canus. For example, in exemplary assays, eight percent frass insoil (dry weight frass/dry weight frass plus soil) killed 90-100% A.lineatus within 1-6 days, with lower concentrations killing a smallerproportion. For example, alternative batches of frass applied at a rateof 7.5% (dwt/dwt) killed from 28% to 88% A. lineatus in under five days.In general, 8% (dwt/dwt) frass reliably killed a high percentage ofwireworms within 4 days. Similarly, 10% frass (dwt/dwt) killed 100% and80% respectively of A. obscurus and L. canus after 24 hours. Frass alsoexhibited insecticidal activity against European chafer (Scarabidae), inassays evidencing 20% more chafer larvae killed after 20 days ofexposure to 8% frass (dwt/dwt), compared to controls. Similarly, assaysevidenced the effectiveness of BSF frass against cabbage root maggots,with frass killing larval and pupal stages, and reducing fly emergence.

Frass particles vary in size, and insecticidal activity may vary withthe size of frass particles that are applied. In some assays, largefrass particles that are reduced to fine particles are more toxic towireworms than small particles reduced to finer particles. Alternativeembodiments of the invention may accordingly involve grinding or sievingfrass to obtain an insecticidal frass product having a desired particlesize.

Field application of frass repelled adult click beetles, while wirewormswere observed to consume frass. Accordingly, in some aspects, theinvention involves using an insect trap comprising black soldier flyfrass, so that the insect pest may be exposed to the BSF frass in thetrap.

REFERENCES

-   1. Bradley, S. W. and Sheppard, D. C. 1984. House Fly Oviposition    Inhibition by Larvae of Hermetia illucens, the Black Soldier Fly.    Journal of Chemical Ecology, 19, 853.-   2. Erickson, M. C., M. Islam, C. Sheppard, J. Liao, and M. P.    Doyle. 2004. Reduction of Eschericia coli 0157:H7 and Salmonella    enterica serovar Enteritidis in chicken manure by larvae of the    black soldier fly. J. Food Protection. 67: 685-690.-   3. Furman, D. P., R. D. Young, and E. P. Catts. 1959. Hermetia    illucens (Linnaeus) as a factor in the natural control of Musca    domestica Linnaeus. J. Econ. Entomol. 52: 917-921.-   4. Hogsette, J. A. 1985. New diets for production of house flies and    stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) in the laboratory. J. Econ.    Entomol. 85: 2291-2294.-   5. Kabaluk, T., Janmaat, A, Sheedy, C., Goettel, M., and Noronha, C.    2013. Agriotes spp. L., Wireworms and Click Beetles (Coleoptera:    Elateridae). In: Mason, P. and Gillespie, D. (eds) Biological    Control Programmes in Canada. CABI, UK, 72-82.-   6. Liu, Q., Tomerblin, J. K., Brady, J. A., Sanford, M. R., and    Yu, Z. 2008. Black Soldier Fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larvae    Reduce Escherichia coli in Dairy Manure. Environ. Entomol. 37(6):    1525-1530.-   7. Sheppard, D. C J. K.; J. K. Tomberlin, J. A. Joyce, B. C. Kiser    & S. M. Sumner. 2002. Rearing Methods for the Black Soldier Fly    (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). J. Med. Entomol. 39(4): 695-698.-   8. Tomberlin, J. K., Alder, P. H., and Myers H. M. 2009. Development    of the Black Soldier Fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in Relation to    Temperature. Environ. Entomol. 38: 930-934.-   9. Tomberlin, J. K. & D. C. Sheppard. 2002. Factors Influencing    Mating and Oviposition of Black Soldier Flies (Diptera:    Stratiomyidae) in a Colony. J. Entomol. Sci. 37(4): 345-352.-   10. Tomberlin, J. K., D. C. Sheppard & J. A. Joyce. 2002. Selected    Life-History Traits of Black Soldier Flies (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)    Reared on Three Artificial Diets. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 95(3):    379-386-   11. Zhang, et al. 2010. An artificial light source influences mating    and oviposition of black soldier flies, Hermetia illucens. J. Insect    Sci. 10:1-7.

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method for reducing or inhibitingColeopteran insect pest damage to a crop susceptible to the Coleopteraninsect pest, comprising applying at a site known to harbor wireworms aneffective amount of black soldier fly frass to soil or to the crop toreduce or inhibit damage caused by wireworms, or exposing theColeopteran insect to the black soldier fly frass, wherein theColeopteran insect pest is a larva, prepupa or adult of a Click Beetle(family Elateridae).
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the methodcomprises repelling or inhibiting the Coleopteran insect pest in thesoil or the crop by exposing the Coleopteran insect pest to the blacksoldier fly frass.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the amount iseffective for increasing yield of the crop grown.
 4. The method of claim1, wherein the wireworm is a: Agriotes criddlei, Agriotes lineatus,Agriotes mancus, Agriotes mellitus, Agriotes obscurus, Agriotessputator, Aeolus mellillus, Athous sp., Ctenicera cylindriformis,Ctenicera destructor, Ctenicera lobata, Ctenicera morula, CteniceraHemicrepidius abbreviatus, Hemicrepidius nocturnus, Hemicrepidius sp.,Limonius agonus, Limonius californicus, Limonius canus, LimoniusMelanotus communis, or Melanotus sp.
 5. The method of claim 1, whereinthe frass is applied to the soil.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein theeffective amount of the frass is applied by being worked into the soilbefore planting the crop.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein theeffective amount of the frass is applied to the soil at least one weekprior to planting the crop.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein theeffective amount of the frass is applied to the crop.
 9. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the crop is a: corn, sorghum, small grain, tobacco,sugar beet, bean, vegetable, lettuce, bok choy, or potato, grass/turf orother ornamental plant.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the effectiveamount of the frass is at least about 5 tonnes per Hectare.
 11. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the effective amount of the frass is at leastabout 8% dry weight frass to dry weight frass plus soil.
 12. The methodof claim 1, wherein the frass is applied so as to kill at least 50% ofthe insect pests on the crop or in the soil.
 13. The method of claim 1,wherein the insect is exposed to the frass in an insect trap.
 14. Themethod of claim 13, wherein the insect trap comprises a housing adaptedto expose an insect pest to the frass.